The explanation based on the historical evolution of the green space in the city is very plausible. A considerable amount of the most deprived neighbourhoods are located in the historical centre; green spaces in the historical centre date back to the 19th century and early 20th century, when these were viewed as meeting and convivial places for the upper social classes and the emerging bourgeois culture that demanded new lifestyles [ 51 , 74 ].
In that time, most green space investment went to aesthetic elements with significantly less to equipment for active recreation. Unfortunately, information on year of establishment of Porto green spaces is not complete, hampering our explorations of the interactions between time and green space quality. Indeed, it would be of extreme importance to understand the historical processes that shaped the sharp socioeconomic inequalities in green space provision we observed in Porto.
Documental investigation newspapers, ordinances, city plans , as conducted by Boone and colleagues in Baltimore [ 33 ], would help us to elucidate these pathways in future investigations. Finally, we observed that, in the multivariable ordinal regression model, the quality score related with the availability of equipment for sports and exercise was not significantly related to socioeconomic deprivation when the other quality scores were taken into account.
The present study has a number of limitations that merit discussion. Firstly, the cross-sectional ecological design of this study prevents us from making any causal inference.
We know that the installation of a green area generally comes with an increase in property and housing prices [ 75 ], and, therefore, might cause in-migration of the upper social classes and out-migration of the lower social classes. Our study was based on a single urban setting, which means especially since the literature has shown large within-country variability [ 9 , 22 ] that our results cannot be straightforwardly extrapolated to other Portuguese and southern European cities, wherein green space provision policy and level of engagement in tackling socioeconomic differentials are possibly different.
Diverse studies have identified relevant inequalities in green space provision according to the ethnic and religious composition of the city tracts [ 22 , 25 , 76 ]. Yet, in our defence, immigration has a much smaller expression in Portugal especially in Porto and Northern Portugal when compared with Lisbon and the South than in other European and American cities [ 77 ], leading us to believe that addressing socioeconomic differentials is of greater importance.
It is also important to refer that the chosen items of POST are debatable. Yet, as we considered most POST items, it is unlikely those choices are driving our main results. Similarly, although dichotomization prior to index computation is a rather common procedure [ 80 , 81 , 82 ], this methodological approach is also arguable and might lead to some loss of information.
Nevertheless, as most of POST items were originally dichotomous, we considered that this approach did not compromise our findings or conclusions. Finally, we did not examine whether access to green space was associated with actual physical activity, and whether these between-neighbourhood differences provided a potential explanation for the observed socioeconomic differentials in physical activity.
Nevertheless, the present investigation does present several strengths. As far as we are aware, this is the first study addressing the presence of socioeconomic inequalities in green space access in Portugal, and one of the first in Southern Europe.
To date, this topic has been overlooked in Europe, possibly because the environmental justice movement started and gained more expression in the USA and in Anglo-Saxon countries.
We included a consistent objective definition of green space green spaces that can be freely used by the population to engage in leisure and physical activities and we considered the universe of public green areas and all neighbourhoods of the city, instead of relying on random samples of the universe.
We addressed two important dimensions of green space access: geographic accessibility and quality, contrasting with a significant part of previous studies focused on the geographic accessibility dimension only. Finally, the quality of green space was evaluated with a well-established, validated tool with good psychometric properties that can be used in other contexts by academics and planners, allowing for comparisons through time and space.
In conclusion, this study revealed important socioeconomic inequalities in green space provision in a southern European setting. Porto residents from low socioeconomic positions seem to suffer from a double jeopardy: they lack both individual and community resources, which may limit their capacity to take control of their health and health-related behaviours, such as physical activity.
Future research should extend to other cities in Portugal and Europe and should investigate whether other environmental correlates of physical activity i. Our study suggest that there is a need to improve accessibility and quality green space in Porto, especially in the more socioeconomically deprived areas of the city. As the urban environment is highly malleable and interventions and local authorities have some degree of autonomy of governance to respond to the needs of the population, improving and equalizing green space provision in Porto city seems to be an achievable target.
The following are available online at www. Table S2: Sensitivity analysis. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Aug Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.
Received Jul 9; Accepted Aug This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Associated Data Supplementary Materials ijerphs Abstract Background : The provision of green spaces is an important health promotion strategy to encourage physical activity and to improve population health.
Keywords: urban health, green areas, built environment, physical activity, environmental justice. Introduction Physical activity PA is an important health determinant, being associated with numerous health benefits [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Materials and Methods 2. Study Area The Porto municipality is located in the northwest of Continental Portugal and is comprised of approximately , inhabitants [ 52 ], distributed across Green Spaces The city of Porto has 55 public green spaces, 52 of which are administered by the Porto city council, and three are privately owned but freely accessible to the public, from which seven correspond to urban parks, 12 to historical gardens and 36 to proximity green spaces.
Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Neighbourhood Socioeconomic Deprivation The European Deprivation Index EDI was used to classify the neighbourhoods according to their level of socioeconomic deprivation. Statistical Analysis To compare greenspace accessibility and quality according to neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation quintiles we first computed descriptive statistics: medians and IQR interquartile range or means and standard deviations SD for continuous variables, and proportions for categorical variables.
Results Table 1 shows the variables related to geographic accessibility to green spaces according to quintiles of neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation. Table 1 Geographic accessibility to green space according to neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation quintiles. Table 2 Green space quality scores according to neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation quintiles. Table 3 Green space features according to neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation quintiles.
Domain: Activities Usage active Table 4 Green space features according to neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation quintiles continuation. Domain: Amenities Public access toilets yes Table 5 Association between green space geographic accessibility and quality and neighbourhood deprivation quintiles.
Discussion Given the potential of green spaces to promote physical activity and health, the present study sought to evaluate the geographic accessibility and quality of the green spaces in the city of Porto Northern Portugal and investigated whether green space provision followed the principle of equality, or if, on the other hand, it favoured certain socioeconomic groups. Conclusions In conclusion, this study revealed important socioeconomic inequalities in green space provision in a southern European setting.
Supplementary Materials The following are available online at www. Click here for additional data file. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Kruk J. Physical activity in the prevention of the most frequent chronic diseases: An analysis of the recent evidence. Asian Pac. Cancer Prev. Reiner M.
Long-term health benefits of physical activity—A systematic review of longitudinal studies. BMC Public Health. World Health Organization. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health. WHO; Geneva, Switzerland: Giles-Corti B. The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity.
Ribeiro A. Physical activity-friendly neighbourhood among older adults from a medium size urban setting in Southern Europe. Mytton O. Green space and physical activity: An observational study using Health Survey for England data. Health Place. Astell-Burt T. Do low-income neighbourhoods have the least green space? Frumkin H. Healthy places: Exploring the evidence. Public Health. People are our inspiration. They are at the core of our practice, at the heart of how we plan and design.
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Link to post Expanding our scope of work. Here are some of the projects we are working on:. Link to post Soft City — The Masterclass. Wishing you a happy holiday season! Link to post Soft City Book — Available now. Link to post Gehl Annual Report During apartheid the equal right of all citizens to access quality public spaces was denied to the majority of non-white South Africans.
Spatial segregation enforced a limited, discriminatory access to the city centres and certain areas for the majority of citizens. In the planning and building of townships, quality public spaces were assigned a minimal role and were all but neglected.
For many black South Africans during apartheid open spaces in townships, informal settlements and inner cities were often frightening places - dirty, garbage-strewn and unsafe. Sadly, this is often still the case in many settlements. Today, the legacy of apartheid's spatial policies is still widely reflected in South Africa's cities. The so-called 'public space deficit' particularly affects peripheral lower income neighbourhoods and especially informal settlements. In many cases, these are still segregated along racial lines, but also along class lines.
South Africa, with its history of segregation, needs physical spaces for citizens and communities of different backgrounds to interact. But there has generally been a lack of provision for such spaces where individuals of different classes, races, cultures and traditions can mingle. Over the last twenty years of democracy, many parks and other public spaces have fallen into disarray or are simply not accounted for.
This is often both a result of and reason for a general perception that open public spaces are unsafe. From December to June , the project transformed Baylis and Fitzmaurice Streets in the city centre into places for the community with art, lighting, temporary furniture, mini-dining pop ups, creative laneway treatments and music.
The project culminated in a launch at the Lost Lanes Festival in June, supporting night-time economic activity, connecting the community with local businesses and fostering community pride. Photo credit: Department of Planning, Industry and Environment. The Metropolitan Greenspace Program commits grant funding to local councils in Greater Sydney and the Central Coast for projects that improve and increase access to regionally significant open space.
The Metropolitan Greenspace Program is the longest running open space grants program, having started in The charter has been developed to support the planning, design, management and activation of public spaces in NSW. It identifies 10 principles for quality public space, developed through evidence-based research and discussions with a diverse range of public space experts and we want your input on these. It aims to help these stakeholders assess the quality of public space, identify areas where a place is doing well and areas for improvement.
The Great Public Spaces Guide is an introduction to understanding the meaning of place and the elements that contribute to create a great public facility, open space, or street. You can find a local public space in your area using the ePlanning Spatial Viewer. The public spaces layer shows the location of known open spaces and public facilities across NSW. If you would like to learn more about the Great Public Spaces program, contact the project team via email: publicspace planning.
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